Frued and Modern Psychoanalysis Essay

â€Å"Modern psychoanalysis† is a term coined by Hyman Spotnitz. â€Å"Influenced by the works of Sigmund Freud, Dr. Spotnitz believed that the principles of psychoanalysis could be extended to cure the severe narcissistic disorders that Freud had deemed untreatable. † (Sara Sheftel, 1991) Dr. Spotnitz and his colleagues described it as a â€Å"body of theoretical and clinical approaches† that could be used to envelop the full spectrum of emotional disorders and broaden the potential for treatment to pathologies thought to be untreatable by conventional methods. Modern psychoanalysis and other forms of psychotherapy are significantly different when compared to Freud’s concept of psychoanalysis back then. However, the popularity of the â€Å"talking cure† has remained present and people today actually realize that therapy works. When Freud first started treating patients this way, most people did not believe that simply talking about their problems would somehow fix physical issues too. Modern psychoanalysis takes Freud’s basic theory of human psyche and use it as its starting point. Modern psychoanalysis differs from other methods of psychoanalysis by following Freud’s later work and the work of Melanie Klein in stressing the importance of dealing with destructive behaviors as well as sexual motivation in order for the human psyche to evolve. (Pickren, 2010) Like all psychoanalysts, modern psychoanalysts emphasize the unconscious nature of much of human motivation, the impact of the early development of mental functioning on later functioning, and the tendency of people to repeat patterns of handling emotional arousal states. Also similar to other schools of psychoanalysis, modern psychoanalytic treatment emphasizes helping the patient talk progressively, working on resolving resistance to putting everything into words and on analyzing the transference of repetitive emotional patterns experienced with the analyst. (New England Association Schools and Colleges, 2010) But we cannot deny the influence Freud has had upon thinking in the 20th and 21st centuries. This has spread throughout Western culture and into the international creative arts. His thoughts can be observed in art, literature, cinema and the stage. Notions of identity, memory, childhood, sexuality, and of meaning have been shaped in relation to – and often in opposition to – Freud’s work. No doubt this influence will continue into the future. Psychoanalysis gained more popularity after Freud’s death, but then decreased in popularity again in the modern world. People today are looking for a type of â€Å"fast food, drive-thru† style of treatment. Therapy using psychoanalysis requires using a much longer amount of time than our society today have the patience for. Less lengthy forms of psychotherapy is preferred today, such as psycho-dynamics, family therapy, and cognitive-behaviorism. Sigmund Freud completely changed how the Western world thinks of the mind and human behavior, by using and developing techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. Freud has been universally acclaimed as well as he was deeply disliked by many who knew him for his personal views and his curt and deceptive personality. But for better or worse we live with a profound influence of Freud’s style of psychoanalysis.

Biomolecules

In order for students to receive a better understanding on bimolecular, Mr.. Wilkinson had them conduct a lab on Friday in class. During the lab, students ere asked to mix together chemicals with elephant urine and document any Chant gees In the solutions. Depending on each alteration, students were asked to observe and decide whether or not there were any macromolecules in the substances. During our observation, many of the results came back altered in some form, meaning that macromolecules were present in the chemical.We automatically knew this when the liquids dropped on the paper bag became translucent within a few minutes, since the fats in the substance are what ma eke it see through. This came as a concern because the tests suggested that the tangent's body is not functioning as it should. When people are sick, nutrients, macromolecules obtained through the food we eat, might pass through the b odd without being absorbed and end up being eliminated in our urine.In our Patti ne t's case, lots of macromolecules were found in their urine, indicating a possible problem, and it was agreed that further testing should be done. This lab turned out to be very interesting and even proved to be quite educational. In this lab, learned the differences between negative and positive controls, and why they were significant in an experiment. Although some sets sacks

Historiographic Metafiction Essay

The frontiers of a book are never clear-cut: beyond the title, the first lines, and the last full-stop, beyond its internal configuration and its autonomous form, it is caught up in a system of references to other books, other texts, other sentences: it is a node within a network. -Foucault What we tend to call postmodernism in literature today is usually characterized by intense self-reflexivity and overtly parodic intertextuality. In fiction this means that it is usually metafiction that is equated with the postmodern. Given the scarcity of precise definitions of this problematic period designation, such an equation is often accepted without question. What I would like to argue is that, in the interests of precision and consistency, we must add something else to this definition: an equally self-conscious dimension of history. My model here is postmodern architecture, that resolutely parodic recalling of the history of architectural forms and functions. The theme of the 1980 Venice Biennale, which introduced postmodernism to the architectural world, was â€Å"The Presence of the Past. † The term postmodernism, when used in fiction, should, by analogy, best be reserved to describe fiction that is at once metafictional and historical in its echoes of the texts and contexts of the past. In order to distinguish this paradoxical beast from traditional historical fiction, I would like to label it â€Å"historiographic metafiction. † The category of novel I am thinking of includes One Hundred Years of Solitude, Ragtime, The French Lieutenant’s Woman, and The Name of the Rose. All of these are popular and familiar novels whose metafictional self-reflexivity (and intertextuality) renders their implicit claims to historical veracity somewhat problematic, to say the least. 3 LINDA HUTCHEON In the wake of recent assaults by literary and philosophical theory on modernist formalist closure, postmodern American fiction, in particular, has sought to open itself up to history, to what Edward Said (The World) calls the â€Å"world. † But it seems to have found that it can no longer do so in any innocent way: the certainty of direct reference of the historical novel or even the nonfictional novel is gone. So is the certainty of self-reference implied in the Borgesian claim that both literature and the world are equally fictive realities. The postmodern relationship between fiction and history is an even more complex one of interaction and mutual implication. Historiographic metafiction works to situate itself within historical discourse without surrendering its autonomy as fiction. And it is a kind of seriously ironic parody that effects both aims: the intertexts of history and fiction take on parallel (though not equal) status in the parodic reworking of the textual past of both the â€Å"world† and literature. The textual incorporation of these intertextual past(s) as a constitutive structural element of postmodernist fiction functions as a formal marking of historicity-both literary and â€Å"worldly. † At first glance it would appear that it is only its constant ironic signaling of difference at the very heart of similarity that distinguishes postmodern parody from medieval and Renaissance imitation (see Greene 17). For Dante, as for E. L. Doctorow, the texts of literature and those of history are equally fair game. Nevertheless, a distinction should be made: â€Å"Traditionally, stories were stolen, as Chaucer stole his; or they were felt to be the common property of a culture or community †¦ These notable happenings, imagined or real, lay outside language the way history itself is supposed to, in a condition of pure occurrence† (Gass 147). Today, there is a return to the idea of a common discursive â€Å"property† in the embedding of both literary and historical texts in fiction, but it is a return made problematic by overtly metafictional assertions of both history and literature as human constructs, indeed, as human illusions-necessary, but none the less illusory for all that. The intertextual parody of historiographic metafiction enacts, in a way, the views of certain contemporary historiographers (see Canary and Kozicki): it offers a sense of the presence of the past, but this is a past that can only be known from its texts, its traces-be they literary or historical. Clearly, then, what I want to call postmodernism is a paradoxical cultural phenomenon, and it is also one that operates across many traditional disciplines. In contemporary theoretical discourse, for instance, we find puzzling contradictions: those masterful denials of mastery, totalizing negations of totalization, continuous attest4 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION ings of discontinuity. In the postmodern novel the conventions of both fiction and historiography are simultaneously used and abused, installed and subverted, asserted and denied. And the double (literary/historical) nature of this intertextual parody is one of the major means by which this paradoxical (and defining) nature of postmodernism is textually inscribed. Perhaps one of the reasons why there has been such heated debate on the definition of postmodernism recently is that the implications of the doubleness of this parodic process have not been fully examined. Novels like The Book of Daniel or The Public Burning-whatever their complex intertextual layering-can certainly not be said to eschew history, any more than they can be said to ignore either their moorings in social reality (see Graff 209) or a clear political intent (see Eagleton 61). Historiographic metafiction manages to satisfy such a desire for â€Å"worldly† grounding while at the same time querying the very basis of the authority of that grounding. As David Lodge has put it, postmodernism short-circuits the gap between text and world (239-4 0 ) . Discussions of postmodernism seem more prone than most to confusing self-contradictions, again perhaps because of the paradoxical nature of the subject itself. Charles Newman, for instance, in his provocative book The Post-Modern Aura, begins by defining postmodern art as a â€Å"commentary on the aesthetic history of whatever genre it adopts† (44). This would, then, be art which sees history only in aesthetic terms (57). However, when postulating an American version of postmodernism, he abandons this metafictional intertextual definition to call American literature a â€Å"literature without primary influences,† â€Å"a literature which lacks a known parenthood,† suffering from the â€Å"anxiety of non-influence† (87). As we shall see, an examination of the novels of Toni Morrison, E. L. Doctorow, John Barth, Ishmael Reed, Thomas Pynchon, and others casts a reasonable doubt on such pronouncements. On the one hand, Newman wants to argue that  postmodernism at large is resolutely parodic; on the other, he asserts that the American postmodern deliberately puts â€Å"distance between itself and its literary antecedents, an obligatory if occasionally conscience-stricken break with the past† (172). Newman is not alone in his viewing of postmodern parody as a form of ironic rupture with the past (see Thiher 214), but, as in postmodernist architecture, there is always a paradox at the heart of that â€Å"post†: irony does indeed mark the difference from the past, but the intertextual echoing simultaneously works to affirm-textually and hermeneutically-the connection with the past. When that past is the literary period we now seem to label as 5 LINDA HUTCHEON modernism, then what is both instated and then subverted is the notion of the work of art as a closed, self-sufficient, autonomous object deriving its unity from the formal interrelations of its parts. In its characteristic attempt to retain aesthetic autonomy while still returning the text to the â€Å"world,† postmodernism both asserts and then undercuts this formalistic view. But this does not necessitate a return to the world of â€Å"ordinary reality,† as some have argued (Kern 216); the â€Å"world† in which the text situates itself is the â€Å"world† of discourse, the â€Å"world† of texts and intertexts. This â€Å"world† has direct links to the world of empirical reality, but it is not itself that empirical reality. It is a contemporary critical truism that realism is really a set of conventions, that the representation of the real is not the same as the real itself. What historiographic metafiction challenges is both any naive realist concept of representation and any equally naive textualist or formalist assertions of the total separation of art from the world. The postmodern is selfconsciously art â€Å"within the archive† (Foucault 92), and that archive is both historical and literary. In the light of the work of writers such as Carlos Fuentes, Salman Rushdie, D. M. Thomas,John Fowles, Umberto Eco, as well as Robert Coover, E. L. Doctorow, John Barth, Joseph Heller, Ishmael Reed, and other American novelists, it is hard to see why critics such as Allen Thiher, for instance, â€Å"can think of no such intertextual foundations today† as those of Dante in Virgil (189)’ Are we really in the midst of a crisis of faith in the â€Å"possibility of historical culture† (189)? Have we ever not been in such a crisis? To parody is not to destroy the past; in fact, to parody is both to enshrine the past and to question it. And this is the postmodern paradox. The theoretical exploration of the â€Å"vast dialogue† (Calinescu, 169) between and among literatures and histories that configure postmodernism has, in part, been made possible by Julia Kristeva’s early reworking of the Bakhtinian notions of polyphony, dialogism, and heteroglossia-the multiple voicings of a text. Out of these ideas she developed a more strictly formalist theory of the irreducible plurality of texts within and behind any given text, thereby deflecting the critical focus away from the notion of the subject (here, the author) to the idea of textual productivity. Kristeva and her colleagues at Tel Quel in the late sixties and early seventies mounted a collective attack on the founding subject (alias: the â€Å"romantic† cliche of the author) as the original and originating source of fixed and fetishized meaning in the text. And, of course, this also put into question the entire notion of the â€Å"text† as an autonomous entity, with immanent meaning. 6 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION In America a similar formalist impulse had provoked a similar attack much earlier in the form of the New Critical rejection of the â€Å"intentional fallacy† (Wimsatt). Nevertheless, it would seem that even though we can no longer talk comfortably of authors (and sources and influences), we still need a critical language in which to discuss those ironic allusions, those re-contextualized quotations, those double-edged parodies both of genre and of specific works that proliferate in modernist and postmodernist texts. This, of course, is where the concept of intertextuality has proved so useful. As later defined by Roland Barthes (Image 160) and Michael Riffaterre (142-43), intertextuality replaces the challenged authortext relationship with one between reader and text, one that situates the locus of textual meaning within the history of discourse itself. A literary work can actually no longer be considered original; if it were, it could have no meaning for its reader. It is only as part of prior discourses that any text derives meaning and significance. Not surprisingly, this theoretical  redefining of aesthetic value has coincided with a change in the kind of art being produced. Postmodernly parodic composer George Rochberg, in the liner notes to the Nonesuch recording of his String Quartet no. 3 articulates this change in these terms: â€Å"I have had to abandon the notion of ‘originality,’ in which the personal style of the artist and his ego are the supreme values; the pursuit of the one-idea, uni-dimensional work and gesture which seems to have dominated the esthetics of art in the aoth century; and the received idea that it is necessary to divorce oneself from the past. â€Å"In the visual arts too, the works of Shusaku Arakawa, Larry Rivers, Tom Wesselman, and others have brought about, through parodic intertextuality (both aesthetic and historical), a real skewing of any â€Å"romantic† notions of subjectivity and creativity. As in historiographic metafiction, these other art forms parodically cite the intertexts of both the â€Å"world† and art and, in so doing, contest the boundaries that many would unquestioningly use to separate the two. In its most extreme formulation, the result of such contesting would be a â€Å"break with every given context, engendering an infinity of new contexts in a manner which is absolutely illimitable† (Derrida 185). While postmodernism, as I am defining it here, is perhaps somewhat less promiscuously extensive, the notion of parody as opening the text up, rather than closing it down, is an important one: among the many things that postmodern intertextuality challenges are both closure and single, centralized meaning. Its willed and willful provisionality rests largely upon its acceptance of the inevitable textual infiltration of prior discursive 7 LINDA HUTCHEON practices. Typically contradictory, intertextuality in postmodern art both provides and undermines context. In Vincent B. Leitch’s terms, it â€Å"posits both an uncentered historical enclosure and an abysmal decentered foundation for language and textuality; in so doing, it exposes all contextualizations as limited and limiting, arbitrary and confining, self-serving and authoritarian, theological and political. However paradoxically formulated,  intertextuality offers a liberating determinism† (162). It is perhaps clearer now why it has been claimed that to use the term intertextuality in criticism is not just to avail oneself of a useful conceptual tool: it also signals a â€Å"prise de position, un champ de reference† (Angenot 122). But its usefulness as a theoreticalframework that is both hermeneutic and formalist is obvious in dealing with historiographic metafiction that demands of the reader not only the recognition of textualized traces of the literary and historical past but also the awareness of what has been done-through irony-to those traces. The reader is forced to acknowledge not only the inevitable textuality of our knowledge of the past, but also both the value and the limitation of that inescapably discursive form of knowledge, situated as it is â€Å"between presence and absence† (Barilli). halo Calvina’s Marco Polo in Invisible Cities both is and is not the historical Marco Polo. How can we, today, â€Å"know† the Italian explorer? We can only do so by way of texts-including his own (Il Milione) , from which Calvino parodically takes his frame tale, his travel plot, and his characterization (Musarra 141). Roland Barthes once defined the intertext as â€Å"the impossibility of living outside the infinite text† (Pleasure 36), thereby making intertextuality the very condition of textuality. Umberto Eco, writing of his novel The Name of the Rose, claims: â€Å"1 discovered what writers have always known (and have told us again and again): books always speak of other books, and every story tells a story that has already been told† (20). The stories that The Name of the Rose retells are both those of literature (by Arthur Conan Doyle, Jorge Luis Borges, James Joyce, Thomas Mann, T.S. Eliot, among others) and those of history (medieval chronicles, religious testimonies). This is the parodically doubled discourse of postmodernist intertextuality. However, this is not just a doubly introverted form of aestheticism: the theoretical implications of this kind of historiographic metafiction coincide with recent historiographic theory about the nature of history writing as narrativization (rather than representation) of the past and about the nature of the archive as the textualized remains of history (see White, â€Å"The Question†). 8 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION In other words, yes, postmodernism manifests a certain introversion, a self-conscious turning toward the form of the act of writing itself; but it is also much more than that. It does not go so far as to â€Å"establish an explicit literal relation with that real world beyond itself,† as some have claimed (Kirernidjian 238). Its relationship to the â€Å"worldly† is still on the level of discourse, but to claim that is to claim quite a lot. After all, we can only â€Å"know† (as opposed to â€Å"experience†) the world through our narratives (past and present) of it, or so postmodernism argues. The present, as well as the past, is always already irremediably textualized for us (Belsey 46), and the overt intertextuality of historiographic metafiction serves as one of the textual signals of this postmodern realization. Readers of a novel like Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five do not have to proceed very far before picking up these signals. The author is identified on the title page as â€Å"a fourth-generation German-American now living in easy circumstances on Cape Cod (and smoking too much), who, as an American infantry scout hors de combat, as a prisoner of war, witnessed the fire-bombing of Dresden, Germany, ‘The Florence of the Elbe,’ a long time ago, and survived to tell the tale. This is a novel somewhat in the telegraphic schizophrenic manner of tales of the planet Tralfamadore, where the flying saucers come from. Peace. † The character, Kurt Vonnegut, appears in the novel, trying to erase his memories of the war and of Dresden, the destruction of which he saw from â€Å"Slaughterhouse-Five,† where he worked as a POW. The novel itself opens with: â€Å"All this happened, more or less. The war parts, anyway, are pretty much true† (7). Counterpointed to this historical context, however, is the (metafictionally marked) Billy Pilgrim, the optometrist who helps correct defective vision-including his own, though it takes the planet Tralfamadore to give him his new perspective. Billy’s fantasy life acts as an allegory of the author’s own displacements and postponements (i. e. , his other novels) that prevented him from writing about Dresden before this, and it is the intratexts of the novel that signal this allegory: Tralfamadore itself is from Vonnegut’s The Sirens of Titan, Billy’s home in Illium is from Player Piano, characters appear from Mother Night and God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater. The intertexts, however, function in similar ways, and their provenience is again double: there are actual historical intertexts (documentaries on Dresden, etc.), mixed with those of historical fiction (Stephen Crane, Celine). But there are also structurally and thematically connected allusions: to Hermann Hesse’s Journey to the East and to various works of science fiction. Popular 9 LINDA HUTCHEON and high-art intertexts mingle: Valley of the Dolls meets the poems of William Blake and Theodore Roethke. All are fair game and all get re-contextualized in order to challenge the imperialistic (cultural and political) mentalities that bring about the Dresdens of history. Thomas Pynchon’s V. uses double intertexts in a similarly â€Å"loaded† fashion to formally enact the author’s related theme of the entropic destructiveness of humanity. Stencil’s dossier, its fragments of the texts of history, is an amalgam of literary intertexts, as if to remind us that â€Å"there is no one writable ‘truth’ about history and experience, only a series of versions: it always comes to us ‘stencillized'† (Tanner 172). And it is always multiple, like V’s identity. Patricia Waugh notes that metafiction such as Slaughterhouse-Five or The Public Burning â€Å"suggests not only that writing history is a fictional act, ranging events conceptually through language to form a world-model, but that history itself is invested, like fiction, with interrelating plots which appear to interact independently of human design† (48-49). Historiographic metafiction is particularly doubled, like this, in its inscribing of both historical and literary intertexts. Its specific and general recollections of the forms and contents of history writing work to familiarize the unfamiliar through (very familiar) narrative structures (as Hayden White has argued [â€Å"The Historical Text,† 49-50]), but its metafictional selfreflexivity works to render problematic any such familiarization. And the reason for the sameness is that both real and imagined worlds come to us through their accounts of them, that is, through their traces, their texts. The ontological line between historical past and literature is not effaced (see Thiher 190), but underlined. The past really did exist, but we can only â€Å"know† that past today through its texts, and therein lies its connection to the literary. If the discipline of history has lost its privileged status as the purveyor of truth, then so much the better, according to this kind of modern historiographic theory: the loss of the illusion of transparency in historical writing is a step toward intellectual self-awareness that is matched by metafiction’s challenges to the presumed transparency of the language of realist texts. When its critics attack postmodernism for being what they see as ahistorical (as do Eagleton, Jameson, and Newman), what is being referred to as â€Å"postrnodern† suddenly becomes unclear, for surely historiographic metafiction, like postmodernist architecture and painting, is overtly and resolutely historical-though, admittedly, in an ironic and problematic way that acknowledges that history is not the transparent record of any sure â€Å"truth. † Instead, such fiction 10. HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION corroborates the views of philosophers of history such as Dominick LaCapra who argue that â€Å"the past arrives in the form of texts and textualized remainders-memories, reports, published writings, archives, monuments, and so forth† (128) and that these texts interact with one another in complex ways. This does not in any way deny the value of history-writing; it merely redefines the conditions of value in somewhat less imperialistic terms. Lately, the tradition of narrative history with its concern â€Å"for the short time span, for the individual and the event† (Braudel 27), has been called into question by the Annales School in France. But this particular model of narrative history was, of course, also that of the realist novel. Historiographic metafiction, therefore, represents a challenging of the (related) conventional forms of fiction and history through its acknowledgment of their inescapable textuality. As Barthes once remarked, Bouvard and Pecuchet become the ideal precursors of the postmodernist writer who â€Å"can only imitate a gesture that is always anterior, never original. His only power is to mix writings, to counter the ones with the others, in such a way as never to rest on any of them† (Irnage 146). The formal linking of history and fiction through the common denominators of intertextuality and narrativity is usually offered not as a reduction, as a shrinking of the  scope and value of fiction, but rather as an expansion of these. Or, if it is seen as a limitation-restricted to the always already narrated-this tends to be made into the primary value, as it is in Lyotard’s â€Å"pagan vision,† wherein no one ever manages to be the first to narrate anything, to be the origin of even her or his own narrative (78). Lyotard deliberately sets up this â€Å"limitation† as the opposite of what he calls the capitalist position of the writer as original creator, proprietor, and entrepreneur of her or his story. Much postmodern writing shares this implied ideological critique of the assumptions underlying â€Å"romantic† concepts of author and text, and it is parodic intertextuality that is the major vehicle of that critique. Perhaps because parody itself has potentially contradictory ideological implications (as â€Å"authorized transgression,† it can be seen as both conservative and revolutionary [Hutcheon 69-83]), it is a perfect mode of criticism for postmodernism, itself paradoxical in its conservative installing and then radical contesting of conventions. Historiographic metafictions, like Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude, Gunter Grass’s The Tin Drurn, or Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (which uses both of the former as intertexts), employ parody not only to restore history and memory in the face of the distortions of the â€Å"history of forgetting† (Thiher 11 LINDA HUTCHEON 202), but also, at the same time, to put into question the authority of any act of writing by locating the discourses of both history and fiction within an ever-expanding intertextual network that mocks any notion of either single origin or simple causality. When linked with satire, as in the work of Vonnegut, V. Vampilov, Christa Wolf, or Coover, parody can certainly take on more precisely ideological dimensions. Here, too, however, there is no direct intervention in the world: this is writing working through other writing, other textualizations of experience (Said Beginnings 237). In many cases intertextuality may well be too limited a term to describe this process; interdiscursivity would perhaps be a more accurate term for the collective modes of discourse from which the postmodern parodically draws: literature, visual arts, history, biography, theory, philosophy,  psychoanalysis, sociology, and the list could go on. One of the effects of this discursive pluralizing is that the (perhaps illusory but once firm and single) center of both historical and fictive narrative is dispersed. Margins and edges gain new value. The â€Å"ex-centric†-as both off-center and de-centeredgets attention. That which is â€Å"different† is valorized in opposition both to elitist, alienated â€Å"otherness† and also to the uniformizing impulse of mass culture. And in American postmodernism, the â€Å"different† comes to be defined in particularizing terms such as those of nationality, ethnicity, gender, race, and sexual orientation. Intertextual parody of canonical classics is one mode of reappropriating and reformulating-with significant changes-the dominant white, male, middle-class, European culture. It does not reject it, for it cannot. It signals its dependence by its use of the canon, but asserts its rebellion through ironic abuse of it. As Edward Said has been arguing recently (â€Å"Culture†), there is a relationship of mutual interdependence between the histories of the dominators and the dominated. American fiction since the sixties has been, as described by Malcolm Bradbury (186), particularly obsessed with its own pastliterary, social, and historical. Perhaps this preoccupation is (or was) tied in part to a need to fmd a particularly American voice within a culturally dominant Eurocentric tradition (D’haen 216). The United States (like the rest of North and South America) is a land of immigration. In E. L. Doctorow’s words, â€Å"We derive enormously, of course, from Europe, and that’s part of what Ragtime is about: the means by which we began literally, physically to lift European art and architecture and bring it over here† (in Trenner 58). This is also part of what American historiographic metafiction in general is â€Å"about. † Critics have discussed at length the parodic 12 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION intertexts of the work of Thomas Pynchon, including Conrad’s Heart ofDarkness (McHale 88) and Proust’s first-person confessional form (Patteson 37-38) in V. In particular, The Crying of Lot 49 has been seen as directly linking the literary parody ofJacobean drama with the selectivity and subjectivity of what we deem historical â€Å"fact† (Bennett). Here the postmodern parody operates in much the same way as it did in the literature of the seventeenth century, and in both Pynchon’s novel and the plays he parodies (John Ford’s ‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore, John Webster’s The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi, and Cyril Tourneur’s The Revenger’s Tragedy, among others), the intertextual â€Å"received discourse† is firmly embedded in a social commentary about the loss of relevance of traditional values in contemporary life (Bennett). Just as powerful and even more outrageous, perhaps, is the parody of Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol in Ishmael Reed’s The Terrible Twos, where political satire and parody meet to attack white Euro-centered ideologies of domination. Its structure of â€Å"A Past Christmas† and â€Å"A Future Christmas† prepares us for its initial Dickensian invocations-first through metaphor (â€Å"Money is as tight as Scrooge† [4]) and then directly: â€Å"Ebenezer Scrooge towers above the Washington skyline, rubbing his hands and greedily peering over his spectacles† (4). Scrooge is not a character, but a guiding spirit of 1980 America, one that attends the inauguration of the president that year. The novel proceeds to update Dickens’ tale. However, the rich are still cozy and comfortable (â€Å"Regardless of how high inflation remains, the wealthy will have any kind of Christmas they desire, a spokesman for Neiman-Marcus announces† [5]); the poor are not. This is the 1980 replay of â€Å"Scrooge’s winter, ‘as mean as ajunkyard dog† (32). The â€Å"Future Christmas† takes place after monopoly capitalism has literally captured Christmas following a court decision which has granted exclusive rights to Santa Claus to one person and one company. One strand of the complex plot continues the Dickensian intertext: the American president-a vacuous, alcoholic, ex-(male) model-is reformed by a visit from St. Nicholas, who takes him on a trip through hell, playing Virgil to his Dante. There he meets past presidents and other politicians, whose punishments (as in the Inferno) conform to their crimes. Made a new man from this experience, the president spends Christmas Day with his black butler, John, and John’S crippled grandson. Though unnamed, this Tiny Tim ironically outsentimentalizes Dickens’: he has a leg amputated; he is black; his parents died in a car accident. In an attempt to save the nation, the president goes on televi13 LINDA HUTCHEON sian to announce: â€Å"The problems of American society will not go away †¦ by invoking Scroogelike attitudes against the poor or saying humbug to the old and to the underprivileged† (158). But the final echoes of the Dickens intertext are ultimately ironic: the president is declared unfit to serve (because of his televised message) and is hospitalized by the business interests which really run the government. None of Dickens’ optimism remains in this bleak satiric vision of the future. Similarly, in Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down, Reed parodically inverts Dostoevsky’s â€Å"Grand Inquisitor† in order to subvert the authority of social, moral, and literary order. No work of the Western humanist tradition seems safe from postmodern intertextual citation and contestation today: in Heller’s God Knows even the sacred texts of the Bible are subject to both validation and demystification. It is significant that the intertexts ofJohn Barth’s LETTERS include not only the British eighteenth-century epistolary novel, Don Quixote, and other European works by H. G. Wells, Mann, and Joyce, but also texts by Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and James Fenimore Cooper. The specifically American past is as much a part of defining â€Å"difference† for contemporary American postmodernism as is the European past. The same parodic mix of authority and transgression, use and abuse characterizes intra-American intertextuality. For instance, Pynchon’s V. and Morrison’s Song of Solomon, in different ways, parody both the structures and theme of the recoverability of history in William Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom!. Similarly, Doctorow’s Lives of the Poets (1984) both installs and subverts Philip Roth’s My Life as a Man and Saul Bellow’s Herzog (Levine 80). The parodic references to the earlier, nineteenth-century or classic American literature are perhaps even more complex, however, since there is a long (and related) tradition of the interaction of fiction and history in, for example, Hawthorne’s use of the conventions of romance to connect the historical past and the writing present. And indeed Hawthorne’s fiction is a familiar postmodern intertext: The Blithedale Romance and Barth’s The Floating Opera share the same moral preoccupation with the consequences of writers taking aesthetic distance from life, but it is the difference in their structural forms (Barth’s novel is more self-consciously metafictional [Christensen 12]) that points the reader to the real irony of the conjunction of the ethical issue. The canonical texts of the American tradition are both undermined and yet drawn upon, for parody is the paradoxical postmodern way of coming to terms with the past.

Intercultural communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Intercultural communication - Essay Example lates that: ‘The study of intercultural communication begins as a journey into another’s culture and ends as a journey into one’s own culture’. This last statement sensitized me on the extent that I detested my culture; that is the key reason why I decided to share Haiti’s cultural beliefs and background in relation to intercultural communication. Haitian culture comprises of African and French cultural aspects. African culture forms the most prevalent Haitian cultural setting, evidently from the high population of West Africans. Haitian culture, therefore, represents an integration of the language, artistry, and musical ideas from African and French cultures. Creole is the main language spoken by Haitians (Hall 149). Creole is an integration of French language and Haitian Creole. Considerable percentages of Haitians are religious and believe in Christianity, except for few who are Muslims. Haitians are outstanding artists specializing in woodcarving and painting. Their exceptional artistry emanates from the belief in conserving historical events through drawings. Moreover, Haitians remain conservative of their music culture through continued dance and music creativity. Haitians culture beliefs that their music has the potential of scaring off evil spirits and facilitating healing of specific diseases. Haitian traditional dance incorporates native drumming and rhythmic patterns inherently form African and French culture. When it comes to the two concepts of Universality and relativism, I tend to be more universalistic. For instance, I once watched on Facebook some Chinese preparing dog meat for supper and commercial purposes. The meat, to most people is not something that anybody should be eating, as it is a taboo in most cultures around the world. In another scenario, I watched some other Chinese roasting rats as a special meal for a birthday party. I felt disgusted not only by the idea of eating dogs or rats but also by the cruelty with which they

Defining Criminal Justice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Defining Criminal Justice - Assignment Example Introduction Criminal justice refers to the structure of institutions and procedures aimed at promoting social control and moderating crime by enforcing penalties and rehabilitation efforts to those who violate laws. In American, criminal justice is administered through the criminal justice system that comprises three constituents, that is the legislative, which makes laws, adjudication, which represents the court system and corrections, which consists of jails, prisons, parole and probation systems. All these groups of persons work together to uphold the rule of law. However, the criminal justice process moves from policing, courts and eventually corrections. Law enforcement or police is the initial contact point between an offender and the criminal justice, making arrests and conducting investigations to gather evidence on crimes committed. Evidence gathered is presented to the courts for adjudication and prosecution of offenders before sentenced offenders are taken to correctional facilities. ... When delving into the various media used to illustrate various aspects of criminal justice, we shall focus firstly on those that represent the police, secondly, we shall look into those that illustrate the courts or adjudication system and lastly correctional facilities. Media on Policing Some of the acclaimed movies and television shows that highlight the policing aspect of criminal justice include Law and Order and The Untouchables (1). Law and Order is a television series aired on NBC showing the policing aspect of criminal justice. The series, which is based on real life events, focuses on crime investigations and suspect apprehension by the police. It also highlights the processes involved in investigations, for instance, forensic analysis of evidence, procedures of receiving warrants from the courts and police involvement in prosecution of suspects through testimonies and presenting evidence (2). For example, an episode in the first season of Law and Order entitled Subterraean Homeboy Blues depicts real life happenings where the police were instrumental in bringing Bernhard Hugo Goetz to justice after he shot four men who attempted to mug him on a New York subway train. The police gathered evidence which led to Goetz’s conviction for illegally possessing a firearm. The Untouchables, on the other hand, centers on the corrupt aspect of law enforcement, the movie, released in 1987, is centered on the life of a gang leader and focuses on portraying the ills of law enforcement such as corruption and colluding with criminals (2). In this film, a large proportion of the police system is portrayed negatively as corrupt officers, who help gang leaders to take advantage

Organizational Change and Strategic Thinking Research Paper

Organizational Change and Strategic Thinking - Research Paper Example In general, the organizations have to carry on delivering value and face the current challenges, while reorganizing and getting ready for the future challenges. In order to accomplish effective organizational change, whilst performing the difficult task of balancing the present business activities and the preparation for the future, there needs to be reasonable strategies in place. The existence of managers who employ strategic thinking for the planning of organizational development can ensure that the measures for organizational change do not lead to inadvertent consequences. With the rapid changes in the business environment, the managers need decisive thinking skills to shift from the traditional reactive decision-making process to the proactive foresight method, so as to enable the organization to be equipped to face the upcoming challenges (Bonn, â€Å"Developing Strategic Thinking as a Core Competency†).In the middle of the turmoil and intricacy of the modern business wo rld, the successful organizations are those which are aware that, even as it is not viable to observe the future, they can acquire a perspective for the future that would offer them certain indications as to what might be in-store in future. Such organizations then plan accordingly to be prepared for the upcoming events as per their future perspective.  For this type of approach, the management of an organization needs to accept an innovative planning pattern that consists of observing the organization in the perspective of an open system atmosphere.   Such observation will make the organization better positioned to recognize and respond to upcoming events (Bonn, â€Å"Developing Strategic Thinking as a Core Competency†). This would also enable the organization to bring about the changes necessary in those surroundings and also influence the probable changes effecting the organization. The sustainability and performance of an organization in today’s dynamic economi c environment, thus depends on the application of strategic thinking to accomplish required organizational changes. This raises few apparent questions. What is strategic thinking? How can it be employed in accomplishing organizational change? What is the link between organizational culture and strategic thinking? Strategic Thinking – The Why-What-How Approach Richard Hughes and Katherine Beatty have described strategic thinking as â€Å"the collection, interpretation, generation, and evaluation of information and ideas that shape an organization’s sustainable competitive advantage†, in their book ‘Becoming a Strategic Leader’ (Switzer, â€Å"Strategic Thinking in Fast Growing Organizations†). Strategic thinking is a top-down overall observation of the whole organization on the basis of complete understanding of the business of the organization. Thus, strategic thinking consists of observing emerging trends, recognizing if the trends signify o pportunities or intimidation to the business organization. Strategic thinking also involves developing a response of the organization to earn benefit from the prospective opportunity or to alleviate the potential threat

Vodafone AirTouch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Vodafone AirTouch - Essay Example Vodafone currently has equity interests in 27 countries and Partner Networks (networks in which it has no equity stake) in a further 40 countries. It has achieved this status in about three decades with a spate of acquisitions and takeovers. This vertical expansion has never been let up since its formative years and has become its planned positioning strategy in its objective of becoming and possibly remaining number one globally.  Although Vodafone was always on the lookout for expanding its reach and its markets, the opportunity provided to it by the takeover of the US AirTouch was unique. When it took over AirTouch, it automatically acquired AirTouch’s stake in Mannesmann, the largest German telecom operator.  In the corporate world, companies have become marketable commodities. They are seen as commodities in terms of their financial contribution to increasing corporate value on the stock market. Corporates buy one another by way of merger in a friendly mutually agreed environment, or hostile takeovers during corporate wars, to augment their resources, power and market reach. Markets for corporate control create new opportunities for corporate managers to exercise power but they make the relatively little contribution toward improving managerial efficiency. In all cases, the intention is to grow vertically to become global players. It appears that the world is moving towards the eventual division of market share between a few global players in each field of economic activity. Apparently, economies of scale as foreseen and foretold by Adam Smith (1776) have not just come true but are being pursued to the next level. In the Telecom industry to it appears that between five to eight players will eventually control the global markets.  In June 1999 Vodafone bought the number two US wireless operator for 62 billion dollars cash plus stock transaction, the biggest ever deal of its time.  

Building block assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Building block - Assignment Example A weakness of Starbucks Cafà © is that its product is a luxury item that performs poorly during bad economic times. Another weakness of Starbucks Cafà © is high raw material costs. Starbuck Cafà © uses only fair trade coffee at its stores which is more than twice as expensive as regular coffee. Starbucks Cafà © is a company that has expanded its operations oversees. The company has further opportunities for expansion into foreign markets. The firm must expand internationally because the U.S market has become saturated. Another opportunity for Starbucks Cafà © is the potential to grow its sales in the retail marketplace by selling unprepared pounds of Starbucks coffee at supermarkets and other establishments. A threat that Starbucks Cafà © must be aware of is substitute products. In terms of competition in the coffee marketplace a major threat to the company is the continued expansion of McCafà ©. McDonald’s has over 34,000 establishments worldwide and its McCafà © operation sells quality coffee at lower prices than Starbucks

RFID in the Context of Customer Services Research Paper

RFID in the Context of Customer Services - Research Paper Example In the modern business world, there is a need for companies and firms to increase the quality of services they provide their customers or quality of goods and products they produce or manufacture. It is very hard for any company or a firm to regain popularity among their lost customers or improve their position in the market. To make a profit very often means to provide customers with better services. At the same time, a chosen marketing strategy of customers’ services improvement should be developed in compliance with the needs of the company; their assets, potential, set goals and many other internal and external factors. Moreover, with regards to a wide-spread nature of technological innovations, companies implement innovative technologies in customer services. In accordance with research conducted by†¦: â€Å"Technology does more than enable the creation of new or improved services. It may also improve consistent service standards of the company, and, what is more, i mportant is to involve the customers in operations through self-service technology† (Angeles 2005, p. 51). Therefore, the modern business world needs innovations. To keep pace with the globalized world every firm or company should meet new requirements and follow the developments of technologies. In order to appropriately introduce valuable innovative assets, it is relevant to assess their advantages and disadvantages. An individual-centered approach is high on the agenda in the modern business world. A customer is of crucial importance. The more customers the company has, the greater success comes. The relevance of RFID technology in the business world Taking into account the abovementioned issues of the modern business world, an innovative vision in the field of customer services can be illustrated by a high popularity of Radio Frequency Identification services. It is necessary to answer the question: â€Å"whether RFID technology is the best customers’ services impl emented by the company to increase its sales?†In order to answer this question, it is relevant to consider modern researchers and studies on RFID technology, its advantages, and disadvantages, its importance for the company and the customers.  Ã‚  

Management action plan for enhancing pedagogical outcomes on a Essay

Management action plan for enhancing pedagogical outcomes on a selected institution (educational report) - Essay Example With the constant endeavor of the thinkers/intelligentsia, ‘Pedagogy’, the science of teaching evolved as a separate and distinct discipline wherein emphasis was given on improvising the teaching methods to make the teaching-learning process more productive and result oriented. The teacher, students and the teaching methods combined make the skeleton of the education system and a good education policy focuses on all of them taking them as interrelated factors. â€Å"Education should develop pupils and students as independent individuals by promoting such qualities as initiative, courage, enthusiasm and the desire to learn something new. Education should make it possible for the individual to cope on his or her own, to develop his or her potential and make his or her contribution to the civil society. In this way, education sustains the community and the common cultural identity.† (http://pub.uvm.dk/2002/better1/01.htm ) Including all above, action plans for pedagogical development is prepared. Learning outcomes are very much dependant on pedagogy. These refer, to what a student will be able to know or do at the end of the instruction. Likewise a plan for actively doing something is called an action plan. When students are taught in classes, they are supposed to learn according to the learning outcomes. But, in many cases, it is seen teaching is done in a very traditional method where neither any goal is fixed nor is achieved. Parti cularly, taking the case of china, the pedagogical structure is based on decades of practice and according to the instruction of Ministry of Education of Chinese Communist Party. (Lang & Zha 2004). So, the challenge here is to remove bureaucratic hurdle and also placing realistically achievable goals.( Andrews et al 2002) Where there is a need to combat a problem or to introduce a new pedagogical approach, a plan is made for achieving some specific kind of learning outcomes. So, it is very much required to have a

National federation of independent business vs. sebelius(2012) Essay

National federation of independent business vs. sebelius(2012) - Essay Example The exchange provides individuals and families with low income,at a certain poverty rate, an opportunity to receive the government subsidy towards purchases made in the exchange. In addition, minimum health insurance policy standards are established by the law. There were two major issues that formed the basis for the case and onto which the involved parties laid their claims. The first issue involved the constitutional validity of the Congressional law requiring the states to make a choice between losing Medicaid funding from the federal government and upholding the Obamacare (National Federation of Independent Business vs. Sebelius, 2012). On the other hand, the second issue involves the constitutionality of the Congressional law that pushes for the obtaining of health insurance by all citizens and imposing penalties for those who fail to comply (National Federation of Independent Business vs. Sebelius, 2012). In reference to the first provision of the Affordable Care Act (ACA), which requires all states to adhere to the Medicaid expansion parameters or experience withdrawal of the Medicaid funding, the 10th Amendment is violated. According to the court, as much as the unconstitutionality of the mechanism is evident, the courts only solution is redaction of the penalty to allow for free choice among the states concerning establishment of the proposed exchange without being treated with loss of the Medicaid funding (National Federation of Independent Business vs. Sebelius, 2012). As such, the court maintained that the unconstitutional coerciveness of the provision that withheld the federal grant was clear and evident. With reference to commerce clause, the ACT is unjustified. The court has never allowed the Congress to purchase a given product mandatory by utilizing its power to control commerce between states. As such, there ought to be an item of regulation for the regulation of intersta te commerce by the congress to be possible. On the

History of education Essay Example for Free

History of education Essay Jim Henson once said, â€Å"Kids dont remember what you try to teach them. They remember what you are.† Teaching doesn’t necessarily mean that you have to be smart, you have to be a teacher or professor. Being a good and intellectual person does make you belong. A program named Literacy Training Program (LTS) will help you acquire those required qualifications in order to possess an effective teaching even without getting a bachelor’s degree. LTS is one of the means for us students to help those in need as well as for us to contribute to society by aiding these people to become better citizens. At first, I only require myself to attend and give presence every meeting just for the sake of passing and completion of units. Little did I know that LTS was not just a subject to attend but rather exposing one’s self into realities of life. As a student, I am not very much exposed to different kinds of people, different situations of everyday life, and to different communities as well. In our immersion that was held twice, I have seen those. It made me realized how blessed I am compared with them. So I have attained the urge of taking it as challenge. I am challenge because I am not typically a patient person and not really good in teaching. As a beginner, you must possess virtues like integrity, dedication, fairness and an open mind to greet new ideas and innovate. You should also bear in mind the value of positive reinforcement. I was also taught that we should always establish good relationships with the kids. I witnessed many scenes that a teacher encounters in her teaching career. I felt what a professional teacher felt when she wants her students to learn something new from her. Here, I felt pity with the students not having a proper care from their family. I learned so many things in this teaching experience. I learned how to be more prepared for the materials that I needed, to be patient in making my student understand our lesson, and to be a good listener. I learned the difficulty of teaching many students and the joy I got from it. I learned how to have sympathy for others, to understand their weaknesses and to appreciate their abilities. Most of all, I learned how to socialize with other people, expose myself to the community and adopt their surroundings. LTS helped me develop and grow even more as a student. It opened our minds for us to be able to understand the different circumstances as to what the children experienced. It helped us not to be judgmental to these children and instead to extend our patience until they will be able to understand what is taught to them. We always end our program with a prayer, making the children realized that whatever happens, we should always thank God about everything for what He had given to us, that we should ask for forgiveness and hoping that by the next immersion, it would be much better.

The Relationship Of Organization Structure Commerce Essay

The Relationship Of Organization Structure Commerce Essay The purpose of this report understands you about the organization behavior. To that it includes organization structure, cultures, leadership styles, management approaches, and motivational theories to understand you about the organization behavior. For you to understand this terms this report uses Google and Creative Solutions. Google is a international IT based company which provide various kind of information to the world. Larry page and Sergey Brin are the founders of Google Company. Creative Solutions is also IT based company in Sri Lanka. By using this two companies you can understand how they using different organization structure, cultures, leadership styles, management approaches, and motivational theories to understand you about the organization behavior. Task 01 The Relationship of Organization Structure and Organization Culture (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google, 2012) Section 01 LO1.1 Compare and Contrast Organization Structure and Culture. In ICT Industry, theres lots of companies in the world and in Sri Lanka that doing their operations. They provided many services to the people. Google is one of famous and leading ICT Company in the world. Google is founded by two PhD students in Stanford University, the massive search engine Google officially launched in September of 1998. These two university students develop this Google very fast. The term of Google become officially in 2006, the term pop-up regularly in our normal conversation Just Google it . Newsdays everyone knows about the Google and its the most popular searching engine in the network. Creative Solutions is has assisted international companies with software development, maintenance, support and quality assurance since 1999. By providing a high quality, cost-effective service out of their state of the art Research and development centre in Sri Lanka, they help their clients meet their deadlines and achieve higher level of profitability. An organization structure a consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achieved of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its environment. And the Organization culture is the collective behavior of humans who are part of an organization and the meanings that the people attach to their actions. Larry Page and Sergey Brin founded Google in September 1998. Since then, the company has grown to more than 30.000 employees worldwide with a management team that represents some of the most experienced technology professionals in the industry. Executive Officers Larry Page CEO Eric E.Schmidt Executive Chairmen Sergey Brin Co-Founder Nikesh Arora Senior Vice President And Chief Business Officer David C. Drummond Senior Vice President, Corporate Development and Chief Legal Officer Patrick Pichette Senior Vice President And Senior Financial Officer Senior Leadership Alan Eustace Amit Singhal Andy Rubin Dennis Woodside Jeff Huber Kent Walker Laszlo Bock Rachel Whetstone Salar Kamangar Shone Brown Sridhar Ramaswami Sundar Pichai Susan Wojcicki Urs Hoelzle Vis Gundotra Board of Directors. Larry Page CEO Sergey Brin Co-Founder Eric E.Schidmit L. John Doerr Diane B Greene John L Hennessy Ann Mather Paul S Ottelline K Ram Shriram Shirly L Tilghman And this is the normal structure of the Creative Solutions, In this two organization their organization structure is different to each other. Google is the fourth-most admired company in the United States. Google was also listed as the top company to work for in both 2007 and 2008. Google is a one of most popular organization that many employees like to have jobs there. The main reason for this employee admiration is Googles cross functional organizational structure, which the company maintains though seller leadership and innovative management techniques. And in the Creative Solutions using a functional organization structure. A functional organization structure is best suited as a producer of standardized goods and services at large volume and low cost.   The culture in an organization plays a major role in the organization. The culture in an organization helps to attract the best talent available in the industry. Google was the one of few companies that successfully blended technology innovation with strong organization culture. The culture in the Google is very interesting, motivate and attractive. Culture in Creative Solution is same as the Google, but exactly not like that. Because the culture in Creative Solution also is very motivate, interesting and attractive. They using small methods to attract innovative people and good customers. LO1. 2 The Relationship between Organization Culture and Structure (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organizational-culture.html, 2012) (http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-relationship-between-organizational-structure-and-organizational-culture.htm, 2012) The Organization Culture in Organization is a major role. Organizational structure and organizational culture have a dependent relationship with one another. In the business world, management structure determines the behaviors, attitudes, dispositions, and ethics that create the work culture. If a companys organizational structure is strictly hierarchical, with decisions making power centralized at the top, the companys culture will likely reflect a lack of freedom and autonomy at the lower levels. If the companys management structure is decentralized, with shared power and authority at all levels, the culture is likely to be more independent, personalized and accountable. Its really easy to work in that structure. The way company allocates power and authority determines how employees behave. These choices manifest in a companys organizational structure and organizational culture. Most companies use a hierarchical structure that looks like a pyramid. The chief executive or president sits at the very top of pyramid. Other officers directly report to him. In the Google, there organizational structure and organizational culture also connected to one another. There hire people who smart and determined, and they favor ability over experience. Although Googlers share common goals and visions for the company, they hail from all walks of life and speak dozens of language, reflecting the global audience that they serve. And they not at work, Googlers pursue interests ranging from cycling to beekeeping, from Frisbee to foxtrot. They strive to maintain the open culture often associated with startups, in which everyone is a hands-on contributor and feels comfortable sharing ideas and opinions. In their weekly all-hands meetings not to mention over e-mail or in the cafà ©_ Googlers ask questions directly to Larry, Serge and other execs about any number of companys issues. Their officers and cafes are designed to encourage interaction between Googlers within and across teams, and speak conversations about works as well as play. The organizationa l structure is very different because they are made up of many shareholders that have a say in what the company does and turns into. In Creative Solutions, their culture and structure attached to each other. The culture in Creative Solutions is very interesting and very motivate, and they using a functional organizational structure. Its best suited as a producer of standardized goods and services at large volume and low cost. LO2.2 Organizational Theory (http://management.blurtit.com/q7346416.html, 2012) Organizational theory and management theory is used in many aspects of a working business. Many people strive to adhere to the theory to help them become better at their jobs or more successful in life, although this may lead to them having to sacrifice some of their personal principles in order to succeed. One example of following organizational theory in the financial sector would be an employee or manager who wants to know how to achieve goals by having a set structure to follow. In addition, someone in a Human Resources sector will have to make decisions throughout their working day that will undoubtedly change the structure and practice of a working day for all other employees in the company. If an individual gets so wrapped up in trying to fit the mould of what they interpret their role should be in terms of organizational theory, they may start to neglect other areas of business. In the same way, management theory may also underpin the personal values of some individuals. For instance, they may disagree with a particular rule or regulation that has been introduced by the company, however in order to carry out their job as a manager effectively and professionally, they need to move away from their principles and execute the job. It is difficult to try to execute both management and organizational theories as a psychological contract between the employer and employee still needs to be maintained. This will need to consider how fairly the company is treating the employee and how fairly the employee is treating the company, i.e. are they actually putting 100 percent effort into their work? Any changes to the organization or management in a company, is undoubtedly going to have an effect on all of this. LO2.3 Different Approaches to Management used by Google and Creative Solutions. Google Human behavior approach. This is based on psychology and social psychology. It means management should understand about the human behavior. Management should increasing productivity through motivation and good human relations. In Google they creating friendly, peaceful and relaxed environment for their employees. In Google, their employees highly motivated to their duty well. They maintain a simple and open communication structure. Google has a flat structure that uses cross hierarchical, cross functional teams and they good at decision making. Relationship approach. This means keeping a good cultural relationship. Relationships exist among the external as well as internal environment of the organization. Cooperation among group members is necessary for the achievement of organization objectives. For effective management, efforts should be made for establishing harmony between goals of the organization and the various groups therein. In Google they maintaining with the Laissez- Faire style. This will help to keep to good, strong relationship between employees and the leaders in the Google. Selecting employees approach. In Google, they selected their employees in a special way. They get billions of application in a year. So they are maintaining a good employees selecting system. They are selecting people with good skilled, good personality and with high academic achievements because its easy work with them and its saving Googles money. Creative Solutions Culture approach Creative solutions create a good, friendly and attractive environment for their employees that can work easily. Its always encouraging the employee to do their best and highly motivated. Keeping same leadership style In Creative Solutions they using Democratic Leadership styles, and its help them to encourage their employees to make good decisions and sharing ideas. Interpersonal behavior. Creative Solution always focusing on their employees interpersonal behavior. So that they always selecting, training their employees to make them as good, skill full employees. Section 2 LO2.1 Different Leadership Styles There are different leadership styles in an organization they used to have a successful growth. There are three leadership styles in management, Autocratic Leadership Style Democratic Leadership Style Laissez-Faire Leadership Style In Google they are using Laissez-Faire Leadership Style. The French fraise means leave it be. It describes a leader leave his her colleagues to get on with their works. These types of leadership works for teams in which the individuals are very experienced and skilled self-starters. The Company hired smart engineers, promoted most brilliant into leadership positions and then pretty much left them alone. The reason to do that, they were smart and if they have any problem they figure it out or ask questions if they needed help. Google took time and effort to find out the leadership qualities that are most important in their culture. And in the Creative Solutions, they using the same leadership style in their culture. The effectiveness of this Laissez-Faire Leadership style is final responsibility still lies with the leader. The Laissez Faire leader lets her followers have free reign over the approach, the decision making and basically all aspects in getting the job done. In Creative Solutions they are using democratic leadership style in their structure. Democratic Leadership style, leader will take the final decision, and he/she invites other team members to contribute the decisions-making process. By involving this increase the job satisfaction and also develop the peoples skills, and so motivated to work hard. This style takes more time to take things happen, but the end result is better. LO3.1 -Faced the Technological Breakdown Using Different Leadership Styles Last week theres a huge technological breakdown, and its effect to the whole industry. Because of that most companies in the industry has fallen down in their operations. This technological breakdown not only effect to the industry, its effect to the share market also. And also it effect to the industry in worldwide. In this situation Google is different leadership styles to face this technological breakdown. And Creative Solutions also using different leadership styles to face this technological breakdown. Normally Google is using Laissez-Faire Leadership style in their organization and Creative Solution using Democratic Leadership style in their organization. But in this case its better if they use all three leadership styles, because good leaders use all this three leadership styles to get the best result in their activity. By using all three leadership styles in this case, we can avoid this technological breakdown. In autocratic leadership style leaders tell their employees to what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice from their followers, its better use it is when you have all the information to solve the problem, you are on short time and your employees well motivated. And this is using for only rare occasions. In democratic leadership style, involves leader including one or more employees in the decision making process, it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better process. And the leader maintains the final decision. By using all this three types of leadership styles its easy to identify the problem and faced it well, and also its good for the employees motivation. Section 3 LO3.2- Motivational Theory (http://www.managementstudyguide.com/maslows-hierarchy-needs-theory.htm, 2012) Motivation is a word divided from Latin word movere, meaning to move. Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes, and similar forces. Motivation can be either positive or negative. Its a process that accounts for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining an organizational goal. Diagram 01. There are Three Major Motivational Theories in management. Maslows Hierarchy Theory of Needs Aldefers ERG Theory Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory Maslows Hierarchy Theory based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy of five needs within each individual. This Maslows Hierarchy Theory most often display like a pyramid. The lower level in the pyramid, are made for the most basic needs and the complex needs are in the top of the pyramid. Each one of these needs significantly satisfied its drives and forced to the next level. Applying this Maslows Hierarchy Theory to the Creative Solutions, we can identify what are the higher-order needs and what are the lower-level needs and then can find a way to satisfy them. In Aldefers ERG theory, he recatogorized Maslows Hierarchy Theory of Needs into three simple categorized. They are, Existence Needs Relatedness needs Growth Needs Diagram 02 Existence Relatedness Growth Applying this into the Creative Solutions we can identify the most concrete needs and satisfy them. Existence needs are the most concrete needs and after satisfying them we can think about the next level and its automatically jump into the next level. In Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory, there are two kind of factors affect on motivation and they are Hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors determine dissatisfaction and motivators determine satisfaction. Herzbergs theory confirms that only satisfaction can make a good productivity. Applying this to the Creative Solutions they avoid unpleasantness at work and create job satisfaction in the working environment. So its help to made a good service to the customer LO3.3 Motivational Theory for Managers (http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/, 2012) As a motivational theory Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory is suitable for the managers in Creative Solution. Applying this motivational theory to the Creative Solutions, it helps to motivate managers and get the best result from them. There are two factors in Herzberg theory, they are Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors Hygiene factor are those are essential in a work place. If its not entered to the work place, then they lead to the dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment/scenario. Hygiene factors include, Pay. Companies Policies and Administrative Policies. Fringe Benefits. Physical Working Conditions. Status. Interpersonal Relations. Job Security. And motivational factors are motivating the employees to the superior performance. Motivational factors are called satisfiers. Motivational factors include, Recognition. Sense of Achievement. Growth and Promotional Activities.. Responsibility. Meaningfulness of the Work. The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that the work is stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and give their best to the organization. The job must utilize the employees skills and give a good compete to the competitors. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work-quality. Task 02 HR Manager Presentation in Google Conclusion The purpose of this report understands the organization behavior in the world. It can understand how the organization using different organization structures, cultures, motivational theories and leadership styles. For that this report uses Google and Creative Solutions as the international and local company. So that itll help to understand how these two organizations uses different organization structures, cultures, motivational theories and leadership styles.

Stephen King :: essays research papers

Stephen King is a well-known and talented horror/fiction author who has published over eleven books in the last two decades. His great stories of horror and fantasy have been enjoyed by kids and adults starting from his first best-seller, Carrie. King's wit and style of writing has made him one of the most popular horror story authors today. Stephen King's life has not been an easy one. he was born on September 21, 1947, in Portland Maine(Bleiler, 1038). His father left when he was two and gave him only a collection of supernatural fiction stories(Bleiler, 1038). By age twelve, he was submitting short stories into different magazines such as "The Glass Floor", in 1967(Beacham, 747). After his graduation from the University of Maine with a B.A. in English teaching(Bleiler, 1038), King published many best sellers that won these awards: The British Fantasy Award(1982), The World Fantasy Award(1982), and the Hugo Award(1985)(Beacham, 748). Stephen King written many great books throughout his writing career. Carrie, King's first best seller, is about a teenager who is ridiculed and harassed throughout high school(Bleiler, 1031). After she is finally pushed to the limit, her true side is finally exposed. Cujo, involves a ferocious dog that starts out so innocent and kind , and ends up a brutal man killer(Bleiler, 1031). The Shining, takes place in a motel that is haunted(Beacham, 748). Jack Torrence is a writer who is ridden by guilt and failure(Beacham, 749). After Torrence, his wife, and his five year old son are snowed in for the week, they finally realize the evil that the motel actually possesses. In Firestarter, a little girl possesses the power to start fires with her mind. These powers were givin to her as a test by the government(Bleiler, 1041). Pet Semetary is about a man name Louis Creed(Beacham, 754). After his cat and son die, he buries them in a nearby pet cemetery, which is actually an Indian burial ground. After a certain amount of time, the once dead become living(Beacham, 753). The Eyes of the Dragon is a limited book published in 1986-

Prostitution - Thailand/Canada Essay -- social issues

Prostitution - Thailand/Canada Introduction Prostitution exists in almost all cultures and civilizations of the world today. Just as the cultures differ richly from one another, prostitution and prostitution policy vary greatly throughout the globe. Although the act of prostitution itself is widely similar all over, the policies that are affecting the sex trade are the most influential in shaping the unique and individual sex industries of different countries. This paper takes a look at two very different countries with very different cultural value systems within them. Not surprisingly their perspectives on prostitution differ significantly as well. These two nations are Canada and Thailand; classic examples of Western culture and Eastern culture. We have found no study that suggests that prostitution is more prevalent in either culture, but in general prostitution carries less of a social stigma in Eastern Nations, especially Thailand, than it does in the Western Nations. To begin with we shall examine the specific prostitution legislation within each country, but as we shall soon see the difference between legislation and practice is remarkable. Although prostitution has existed for thousands of years, laws controlling the nature of the sex trade are only a few hundred years old. An epidemic of sexually transmitted disease in 16th century Europe, led to the first serious efforts to control prostitution, as public health considerations demanded further regulatory legislation. Morality and cultural ethics have also played a huge role in determining the position of prostitutes in society. When analyzing the difference between the Canadian sex trade and the Thai sex trade, it is extremely important to keep in mind how Judeo-Christian ethics form the foundation of the Canadian policy. Prostitution laws in Canada Throughout Canada’s history, prostitution has been legal. However, a visitor or even a citizen may never be aware of this fact. This is due to the impeding laws stated in the Canadian criminal code. Canada has a very clear position on prostitution in theory. Part VII of the Canadian criminal code; Laws pertaining to prostitution, state that â€Å"bawdy houses† are illegal (Criminal Code sections 210 and 211), procuring and living on the avails of prostitution of another person are also prohibited (section 212). Procuring and living on the... ...ior is widely accepted in the tourist districts of Thailand, and these girls who service the farangs are part of an established subculture. What does the future hold for Canada and Thailand? Although Canada has recently been increasing criminilization policies, the effects of these policies are just now being looked at. In 1995 many provinces worked together to form the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Working Group on prostitution. The Working Group has been since trying to reform prostitution laws throughout Canada. Referring once again to that Judeo-Christian ethic, the biggest problem in handling prostitution for Western countries is that nobody wants to enact any law that seemingly condones prostitution. The growing opinion is however that the problems of prostitution are not problems of social morality, but problems of social order, and accepting prostitution is the quickest way to control it. As far as Thailand goes, they may not have the technology or industry of the Western nations, but they are advanced enough to have already realized that sex for sale is not a threat. It seems as if the state of affairs will continue in Thailand, as they are now, for quite some time.

Anorexia Nervosa Essay -- essays research papers

Anorexia Nervosa A lot of people including men not just women often dream about having the perfect body. Some may work hard for it and others may think they cannot achieve that dream. In our society, we seem to make body image appear to be almost one of the most important things. Young girls less then thirteen years of age can start to see themselves as being "fat" even if they are thin. In fashion magazines for instance, you will hardly ever see pictures of overweight or slightly overweight people. They are filled with runway models who are so skinny it looks as if they are sick with a disease or are cracked out on drugs. How can people think that looking that way is attractive? It's so disgustingly gross to see models like that when they look emaciated at times. They call themselves "models." Who would want to model themselves after someone who looked like that? Although, it is sad to say that some people actually go as far as starving themselves to look like what they thin k is perfect. Anorexia nervosa is an illness that most commonly happens with teenage girls. At times even teenage boys and adults can struggle with anorexia. Anorexia causes people to be obsessed with food and being thin. Often at times, people with anorexia have emotional problems and use food and weight to try to deal with their problems with a sense of control. "Ninety percent of all anorexics are women" (The National Women's Health Information Center Pg. 1 of 4). There is no exact cause of anorexia. For some, they feel that they are not happy and think that being thin Butler 2 would make them a lot happier and successful. Anorexia can sometimes come from problems in relationships or bad experiences from early childhood. People with anorexia are perfectionists. They need everything to be perfect in their lives and if not, then they blame themselves if their lives are not perfect. Along with having anorexia, there are many problems caused b... ...ients. There are also support groups that anorexics go to so they can discuss their fears and help each other recover from their illness. People with anorexia need full on support from their friends and family as well. Friends and family need to show love for the person with the illness. A lot of times, people with anorexia will beg and lie so they don't have to eat. They feel if they will give up the control they have from gaining weight. Friends and family need to be strong when dealing with a person who is suffering from anorexia. They cannot let the person talk them into believing there is nothing wrong or let the person convince them that they don't need to eat for the time being. Family and friends need to be there for that person and shouldn't get angry at them. Being anorexic is an illness and needs professional help because it cannot be controlled by willpower. Word count: 917

Garner v. Tennessee Case

A case in which the court ruled that a Tennessee â€Å"fleeing felon† law was unconstitutional because it legalize the use of deadly force by police when a suspect poses no immediate threat to the police or others. The court ruled that the use of deadly force was a Fourth Amendment seizure issue subject to a finding of â€Å" reasonableness. †Father, whose unarmed son was shot by police officer as son was fleeing from the burglary of an unoccupied house, brought wrongful death action under the federal civil right statute against the police officer who fired the shot, the police department and others. The United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee, Harry W. Wellford, J. , after remand, rendered judgement for defendant, and father appealed. The Court of Appeal for the Sixth Circuit, and remanded. Certiorari was granted.The Supreme Court held that: apprehension by use of deadly force is a seizure subject to the Fourth Amendment’s reasonablene ss requirement; deadly force may not be used unless it is necessary to prevent the escape and the officer has probable cause to believe that the suspect poses a significant threat of death or serious physical injury to the officer or others; Tennessee statute under authority of which police officer fired fatal shot was unconstitutional because it authorized use of deadly force against apparently unarmed, non dangerous fleeing suspect; the fact that unarmed suspect had broken into a dwelling at night did not automatically mean that he was dangerous. At about 10:45 p. m.  on October 3, 1974, Memphis Police Officers Elton Hymon and Leslie Wright were dispatched to answer a prowler inside call.The fleeing suspect, who was appellee-respondent’s decedent, Edward Garner, stopped at a 6-feet-high chain link fence at the edge of he yard. With the aid of a flashlight, Hymon was able to see Garner’s face and hands. He saw no sign of weapon, and, though not certain, was reasonab ly sure and figured that Garner was unarmed, He thought Garner was 17 or 18 years of age and about 5’5’’ or 5’7’’ tall. While Garner was crouched at the fence, Hymon called out Police! and took a few steps toward him. Garner then began to climb over the fence. Convinced that if Garner made it over the fence he would ran away, Hymon shot him.The bullet hit Garner in the back of the head. Garner was taken to a hospital, where he was pronounce dead on the operating table. Ten dollars and a purse taken from the house were found on his body. In using deadly force to prevent the escape , Hymon was acting under the authority of a Tennessee statute and pursuant to Police Department policy. The statute provides that â€Å" if, after notice of the intention to arrest the defendant, he either flee, or forcibly resist, the officer may use all necessary means to affect the arrest. † The District Court concluded that Hymon’s action were auth orized by the Tennessee statute, which in turn was constitutional.Hymon had employed the only reasonable and practicable means of preventing Garner’s escape. Garner had recklessly and unmindfully attempted to jump over the fence to escape, thereby assuming the responsibility to be risk of being fired upon. The Court of Appeals for Six Circuit affirmed with regard to Hymon, finding that he had acted in good-faith according to the Tennessee statute and was therefore within the scope of his qualified immunity. It remanded for reconsideration of the possible liability of the city, however. Justice White then delivered the opinion of the by saying â€Å" This case requires us to determine the constitutionality of the use of deadly force to prevent the escape of an apparently unarmed suspected felon.We conclude that such force may not be used unless it is deemed necessary to prevent the escape and the officer has probable cause to believe that the suspect poses a significant threa t of death or serious physical injury to the officer or others. The Court of Appeals reasoned that the killing of a fleeing suspect is a seizure under the Fourth Amendment, and is therefore constitutional only if reasonable. The Tennessee statute failed as applied to this case because it did not adequately limit the use of deadly force by distinguishing between felonies of different magnitudes. The facts as found, did not justify the use of deadly force under the Fourth Amendment.Officer cannot resort to deadly force unless they have probable cause to believe that the suspect has committed a felony and poses a threat to the safety of the officers or a danger to the community if left on the loose. The State of Tennessee, which had intervened to defend the statute, appealed to this court. The city filed for petition for certiorari. Whenever an officer restrain the freedom of a person to walk away, he has seized that person. While it is not always clear just when minimal police interfe rence become a seizure, there can be no question that apprehension by the use of deadly force is a seizure subject to the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth Amendment.A police officer may arrest a person if he has probable cause to believe that person committed a crime. Petitioner and appellant argued that if this requirement is satisfied, the Fourth Amendment has nothing to say about how that seizure is made. This submission ignores the many cases in which this Court, by balancing the extent of the intrusion against the need for it, has examined the reasonableness of the manner in which a search or seizure is conducted. To determine the constitutionality of a seizure â€Å"we must balance the nature and quality of the intrusion on the individual’s Fourth Amendment interest against the importance of the government interest alleged to justify the intrusion.†Because one of the factors is the extent of the intrusion, it is plain that reasonableness depends on not on ly when a seizure is made, but also how it is carried out. Notwithstanding probable cause to seize a suspect, an officer may not always do so by killing him. The intrusiveness of a seizure by means of deadly force is unmatched. The suspect‘ s fundamental interest in his own life need not be elaborated upon. The use of deadly force also frustrate the interest of the individual, and of society, in judicial determination of guilt and punishment. Against these interests are ranged governmental interest in effective law enforcement. It is argued that overall violence will be reduced by encouraging the peaceful submission of suspects who know that they may be shot if they flee.Effectiveness in making arrest requires the resort to deadly force, or at least the meaningful threat thereof. Being able to arrest such individuals is a condition precedent to the state’s entire system of law enforcement. † Without in any way disparaging the importance of these goals, we are not such convinced that the use of deadly force is sufficiently productive means of accomplishing them of justify the killing of nonviolent suspects. The use of deadly force is a self-defeating way of apprehending threat of deadly force might be thought to lead to the arrest of more live suspects by discouraging escape attempts, the presently available evidence doe not support this thesis.The use of deadly force to prevent the escape of all felony suspect, whatever the circumstances, is unconstitutionally unreasonable. It is no better that all felony suspects die than that they escape. Where the suspect poses no immediate threat to the officer and no threat to others, the harm resulting from failing to apprehend him does not justify the use of deadly force to do so. It is no doubt when a suspect who is in sight escapes, but the fact that the police arrive a little late or are a little slower afoot doe not always justify killing the suspect. A police officer may not seize an unarmed, non dangerous suspect by shooting him dead. The Tennessee statute in unconstitutional because as it authorizes the use of deadly force against such fleeing suspects.It is not, however, unconstitutionally unreasonable to prevent escape by using deadly force. Thus, if the suspect threatens the officer with a weapon of there is probable cause to believe that he has committed a crime involving the infliction or threatened infliction of serious physical harm, deadly force may be used if necessary to prevent escape, and if where feasible, some warning has been given. As applied in such circumstances, the Tennessee statute would pass constitutional muster. We do not deny the practical difficulties of attempting to assess the suspect’s dangerousness. However, similarly difficult judgement must be made by the police in equally uncertain circumstances.Nor is there any indication that the States that allow the use of deadly force only against dangerous suspects, the standard has been diffi cult to apply os has led to a rash of litigation involving inappropriate second-guessing of police officers‘ split-second decisions. Moreover, the highly technical felony or misdemeanor distinction is equally, if not more, difficult to apply in the field. And officer is no position to know, for example, the precise value of property stolen, or whether the crime was a first or second offense. Finally, as noted above, this claim must be viewed with suspicion in light of the similar self-imposed limitations of so many police department.The District Court concluded that Hymon was justified in shooting Garner because state law allows, and the Federal Constitution does not forbid the use of deadly force to prevent the escape of a fleeing felony suspect if no alternative means of apprehension is available. This conclusion made a determination of Garner’s apparent dangerousness unnecessary. The court did find, however, that Garner appeared to be unarmed, though Hymon could not be certain that was the case. Restated in Fourth Amendment terms, this means Hymon had no articulable basis to think Garner was armed. In reversing, the Court of Appeals accepted the District Court’s factual conclusions and held that the facts, as found, did not justify the use of deadly force. Officer Hymon could not reasonably believed that Garner posed any threat.Indeed, Hymon never attempted to justify his action on any basis other than the need to prevent an escape. Hymon did not have probable cause to believe that Garner, whom he correctly believed to be unarmed posed any physical danger to himself or others. The judgement of the Court of Appeals is affirmed, and the case is remanded for further proceeding consistent with this opinion. As stated in the concept paper, in the killing of Miriam Carey by Washington DC Police. The Tennessee v. Garner case can be used as precedent in justifying the use of deadly force while she was fleeing. Where he reckless driving in attemp t to flee the scene can be consider as immediate threat to the police officers and the others.

Preface to ‘Joseph Andrews’

In his Preface to ‘Joseph Andrews’, Fielding claims that human vices in his novel are ‘never set forth as the objects of ridicule but detestation’. To what extent are ‘Joseph Andrews’ and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ concerned with issues of morality?Despite the fact that ‘Joseph Andrews’ and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ approach their concern with issues of morality differently, they both interrogate the subject to the extent whereby, throughout the majority of both novels, they reveal and question existing ideals of society’s principles: â€Å"Robinson Crusoe initiates that aspect of the novel’s treatment of experience which rivals the confessional autobiography and outdoes other literary forms in bringing us close to the inward moral being of the individual† (Watt, 75). This quote summarises the argument ahead and captures Defoe’s intentions.It is also one of the many critical debates that surround this concern, that accentuate how Fielding and Defoe’s involvement in this matter is significant and almost revolutionary. Whereas Watt’s comment below encapsulates what Fielding aims to achieve: â€Å"Fielding†¦ attempts to broaden our moral sense rather than to intensify its punitive operations against licentiousness. † (Watt, 283). Both of the above quotations provide an insight into both writers’ new and innovative approaches that can be considered to be quite rebellious, compared to other works from the eighteenth century.Throughout Andrew Wright’s essay titled ‘Joseph Andrews: Art as Art’, it is argued that â€Å"Fielding believes that the function of the novel is to provide a paradigm of civilisation which is above the level of ordinary moral imperatives† (Wright, 24). Thus, one may assume that Fielding’s intention is to set a raised barrier of morality in order to demonstrate how low civilisation measures up to it. He also contends that there is much evidence within and outside Fielding’s novel’s to suggest that Fielding did not have high hopes for human beings to become perfect or for society to transform and become flawless.This pessimism entails that human beings are hopeless. However, Fielding wrote in ‘The True Patriot’ on November 12th, 1745 that there are â€Å"some imperfections perhaps innate in our Constitution, and others too inveterate and established, to be eradicated; to these, wise and prudent Men will rather submit, than hazard shocking the Constitution itself by a rash Endeavour to remove them† (Wright, 30). This statement implies that Fielding’s exploration of vices within the narrative was not designed to change civilisation but to reveal its comportment in all veracity.Wright almost discusses the same notion and argues that â€Å"it is impossible to make a bad man good, and good men will very probably grow wise without much prompting. The function of art, therefore- and if this is not a tautology- is to provide a kind of ideal delight† (Wright, 30). Therefore, it is fair to suggest that Fielding does not intend to improve society or change the nature of human kind. Instead, he aims to encourage acceptance of civilisation; his revelation of flaws is formulated in order to allow his readers to find a way of rejoicing them.Thus, morality is a significant theme within the narrative and could be argued to be the purpose of the book. The rationale as to why this does not appear obvious or heightened is because it is not a concept of morality that is usually highlighted or celebrated. Within this balance of rejection and acceptance, Fielding creates a new type of morality and happiness and this can be reinforced in book three, chapter three, when Wilson unfolds his tale of moral deterioration and debauchery in London: â€Å"I soon prevented it.I represented him in so low a Light to his mistress, and ma de so good an Use of Flattery, Promises, and Presents†¦I prevailed the poor Girl, and convey’d her away from her Mother! In a word, I debauched her. -(At which Words, Adams started up, fetch’d three Strides across the Room, and then replaced himself in his Chair. ) You are not more affected with this part of my story than myself: I assure you it will never be sufficiently repented in my own Opinion† (Fielding, 180).This extract promotes acceptance of immorality and shamelessness. The way in which Adams reacts for a moment and then replaces himself in his chair demonstrates a sense of tolerance but also acknowledgment. This is symbolic of Fielding’s approach to morality throughout the entire novel; it is important to be aware of corruption but to attempt to repent it could cause more damage. Similarly to ‘Joseph Andrews‘, ‘Robinson Crusoe’ shows many preoccupations with the concept of morality.However, more so than Fielding (al though Fielding also uses this device), Defoe utilises religion in order to determine a social moral code; he uses the boundaries and margins of religion in order to measure Robinson Crusoe’s principles. For example, the novel presents a protestant work ethic where success in business, in life is a message that you will go to heaven. Throughout the novel, Crusoe suggests that God is capitalist and that material increase suggests spiritual happiness and a closer relationship to God.This is evident on many occasions throughout the novel, for example, Crusoe converts Friday to Christianity and relates closer and closer to God as the novel progresses: â€Å"From these things I began to instruct him in the knowledge of the true God. I told him that the great Maker of all things lived up there, pointing up towards Heaven. That He governs the world by the same Power and Providence by which He made it. That He was omnipotent, could do everything for us, give everything to us, take e verything from us; and thus by degrees I opened his eyes. (Defoe, 213). The significance of the theme of morality (or the Protestant religion as it is referred to within the novel) can also be reinforced by the way in which Crusoe teaches and learns about religion and preaches about its glory to others, such as Friday. This is also evident within ‘Joseph Andrews’ as the reader witnesses Joseph’s attempts to gain attributes similar to Joseph from the bible. For example, he is seen as a father figure within his community. Within his essay, ’Robinson Crusoe and the state of nature’, Maximillian E.Novak argues that â€Å"Defoe was not only delineating the condition of man in the state of nature but also the cultural and political evolution which, by transforming the state of nature, created civilisation and government† (Novak, 23). This suggests that Defoe contributed to a more polished and advanced society that was in the making at the time of t he novel’s publication. He discusses three opinions on the private physical men that were current in Defoe’s day: one being that despite being isolated, man would achieve the same intellectual and moral condition that he would if he ould were raised in society. (Novak, 23). Although the category that Novak feels Crusoe belongs to is the third whereby â€Å"he survives his solitude, but he is always afraid, always cautious. Defoe recognised the benefits of the state of nature, but he believed that the freedom and purity of Crusoe’s island were minor advantages compared to the comfort and security of civilisation. † (Novak, 23). This view implies that human beings almost do not exist without society because they are so formulated by society that without it, there is nothing left.Novak suggests this when he states that human beings are more affluent in society than alone and isolated. This therefore entails that it is society that provides our moral groundin g and that aspects of society such as religion are dominant of what we believe to be right and wrong. Thus, religion is our guide to life and what encourages us to follow codes of moral conduct: â€Å"it is Puritan individualism which controls his spiritual being† (Watt, 74). This can be emphasised within the text as the reader follows Crusoe’s spiritual journey.The reader witnesses how God brings Crusoe back onto the track of Providence which is why he has to relearn everything, including how to behave. Throughout ‘Joseph Andrews’, religion acts as a principal for people to live by and the characters that live up to the standards are used to set an example, such as Joseph. Creating another relationship between both texts, religion is a way for morality to succeed; Fielding makes moral characters virtuous and successful, he also mocks the immoral society that does not have religious beliefs and thus shows that morals equal success.While Defoe shows that re ligion provides Crusoe with moral demeanour. This has an underlying tone of significance about human beings’ behaviour and what we need to survive, as we observe how Crusoe needs routine and time in order to allow him to feel as though he has control. This also relates to the politically charged atmosphere of the time about the need for a ruling monarchy and colonialism because the restoration demonstrated how the public were unable to direct their own lives; they needed demands from authoritative figures in order to provide them with comfort and assurance.For example, Crusoe recreates what he knows from England, such as, farming and building: â€Å"In about a year and a half I had a flock of about twelve goats, kids and all; and in two years more I had three and forty, besides several that I took and killed for my food. And after that I enclosed five several pieces of ground to feed them in, with little pens to drive them into, to take them as I wanted, an gates out of one piece of ground into another† (Defoe, 146).Consequently, both ‘Joseph Andrews’ and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ are concerned with morality to the extent that they aim to produce ideals of morality that they believe to be revolutionary compared to the capitalist society from which they derive from. Ian Watt argues that â€Å"the highest spiritual values had been attached to the performance of the daily task, the next step was for the autonomous individual to regard his achievements as a quasi-divine mastering of the environment. It is likely that this secularisation of the Calvinist conception of stewardship was of considerable importance for the rise of the novel† (Watt, 74).Thus, it can be argued that not only were ‘Joseph Andrews’ and ‘Robinson Crusoe’s’ moral content innovative and enlightening, they were also significant contributors to the ‘rise of the novel’ and a new way of thinking. This renaissance c an be considered as an essential element of the restoration of the time. The fact that Watt explores both novels and novelists in his book ‘The Rise of the Novel’ also accentuates this notion. Throughout her critical study of eighteenth century literature, Pat Rogers discusses the context of the writer’s of the time.She suggests that it was literature’s responsibility to reflect reality and also make sense of it; â€Å"to distil general laws and detect patterns in apparently random occurrences† (Rogers, 11). This is evident in both novels, for example, the way in which Fielding crafts a ingenuous representation of the moral state of society within ‘Joseph Andrews‘: â€Å"Your Lady talks of servants as if they were not born of the Christian Specious. Servants have flesh and blood as well as quality† (Fielding, 260).It is also a dominant feature of ‘Robinson Crusoe’ whereby there are many references to the immoral natur e of English society:† greatly concerned to secure myself from any attack in the night, either from wild beasts or men† (Defoe, 74). For example, this suggests that men are the equivalent to ‘wild beasts’ and also just as threatening, implying that men have become corrupt and out of control, showing a lack of consideration for the rest of society. Thus both novels formulate parodies of the truth that reveal the decay of decency and morality.Rogers supports this argument and reinforces both writers’ methods of portraying such ideals: â€Å"they deal for the most part with the experience of everyday of men and women in society; their tone was plain and worldly, they sought to avoid a recondite air, and they addressed the reader with easy confidence†¦the actions of other people form the most obvious objects of our moral perceptions; when we make moral judgements, we apply ourselves decisions we have made about the behaviour of others. Not only do w e perceive that an act is right or wrong, but we assign merit or blame to the perpetrator of the act. (Rogers, 147). To conclude, both novels have dominant themes of morality, ‘Joseph Andrews’ concentrates on everyday life and behaviour and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ approaches morality from a broader perspective and through the characteristic of religion. Consequently, both novels attack the negative attributes of society and mankind in a rather satirical manner; they observe the truth about people’s principles and encourage enthusiasm for the reader to reach their own conclusions, in order for them to recognise flaws.Not only are both books innovative and rather rebellious, but they can both be considered as fundamental stimulants for the ‘rise of the novel’. Historical evidence of the eighteenth century and the tradition of writing at the time can also support both writers’ objectives in incorporating such dominant themes of morality. T his is because of the lack of individualism and the control of a newly capitalist civilisation. Therefore, overall there is much evidence to support this argument and many existing critical debates, to suggest that both Fielding and Defoe are deeply concerned with the issues of morality.Both ‘Joseph Andrews’ and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ can be read as a reflection of life and human behaviour to the extent whereby they highlight the state of morality and its function within society. Bibliography: Bell, A. Ian. ‘Defoe’s Fiction’. Kent: Biddles Ltd, 1985. Butt, John. ‘Fielding’. London: Longmans, Green & Co Ltd, 1959. Defoe, Daniel. ‘Robinson Crusoe‘. Berkshire: Penguin Books Ltd, 1994. Fielding, Henry. ‘Joseph Andrews‘, ‘Shamela‘. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. Novak, E. Maximillian. Defoe and the Nature of Man’. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1963. Macalister, Hamilton. ‘Literature in Perspective- Fiel ding’. London: Evans Brothers Limited, 1967. Paulson, Ronald. ‘Fielding- A Collection of Critical Essays’. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1962. Rogers, Pat. ‘The Context of English Literature- The Eighteenth Century’. London: Methuen & Co Ltd, 1978. Watt, Ian. ‘The Rise of the Novel’. London: Chatto & Windus, 1963. Wright, Andrew. ‘Henry Fielding: Mask and Feast’. London: Chatto & Windus, 1968.